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<title>Analog ear</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Analog ear</span></span>

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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p>An <b>analog ear</b> or <b>analog cochlea</b> is a model of the <a href="Ear" title="Ear">ear</a> or of the <a href="Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlea</a> (in the <a href="Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">inner ear</a>) based on an electrical, electronic or mechanical <a href="Analogue_electronics" title="Analogue electronics">analog</a>. An analog ear is commonly described as an interconnection of <a href="Electrical_element" title="Electrical element">electrical elements</a> such as <a href="Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a>, <a href="Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, and <a href="Inductor" title="Inductor">inductors</a>; sometimes <a href="Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a> and active <a href="Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifiers</a> are included.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ear_background">Ear background</h2></div>

<p>The ear of the typical mammal consists of three parts. The <a href="Outer_ear" title="Outer ear">outer ear</a> collects sounds like a horn and guides them to the <a href="Eardrum" title="Eardrum">eardrum</a>. Vibrations of the drum are conveyed to the <a href="Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">inner ear</a> via a system of bones called <a href="Ossicles" title="Ossicles">ossicles</a>. These leverage the larger motions of the <a href="Eardrum" title="Eardrum">eardrum</a> to the smaller vibrations of the <a href="Oval_window" title="Oval window">oval window</a>. This window connects to the <a href="Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlea</a> which is a long dual channel arrangement consisting of two channels separated by the <a href="Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">basilar membrane</a>. The structure, about 36 mm in length, is coiled to conserve space. The <a href="Oval_window" title="Oval window">oval window</a> introduces sounds to the upper channel. The lower channel has a <a href="Round_window" title="Round window">round window</a> but this is not driven by the bones of the middle ear. The far end of the structure has a hole between the two channels called the <a href="Helicotrema" title="Helicotrema">helicotrema</a> that equalizes slowly varying pressures in the two channels. A series of sensory <a href="Hair_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Hair cells">hair cells</a> along the <a href="Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">basilar membrane</a> respond to send neural pulses towards the brain.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ear_modeling">Ear modeling</h2></div>

<p>Models for the ear of a direct kind have been created, most notably by Nobel Laureate <a href="Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a>. He used glass slides, razor blades, and an elastic membrane to represent the <a href="Helicotrema" title="Helicotrema">helicotrema</a>. He could measure vibrations along the <a href="Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">basilar membrane</a> in response to different excitations frequencies. He found that the pattern of displacements for given frequency sine wave along the <a href="Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">basilar membrane</a> rose somewhat gradually to a peak and thereafter fell. High frequencies favored shorter distances from the <a href="Oval_window" title="Oval window">oval window</a> than did lower ones. Frequency values approximate a logarithmic distribution with distance.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanical_and_electrical_analogs">Mechanical and electrical analogs</h2></div>

<p>Early mechanical and electrical analog ears were recounted in the 1954 book <i>Analog Methods in Computation and Simulation</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...Barton and Browning<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also simulated the characteristics of hearing over the range of an octave by making use of 13 pendulum resonators. A modern theory of the dynamics of the cochlea, accounting for the hydrodynamics of the cochlear ducts and the dynamics of the basilar membrane, has been proposed<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an electrical analogy developed<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to check the theory. The "analog ear" is a transmission line made up of 175 section s, each section consisting of 2 inductances (to represent the mass of a slice of fluid and that of the duct) and 4 condensers (to represent duct stiffness).</p></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite"><p style="display: inline; padding-left: 2.3em;">— Walter W. Soroka</p></div>

<p>A direct (mechanical) model uses the variables of air and water pressure, fluid velocity and viscosity, and displacement. An electrical analog model uses a different set of variables, namely, voltage and current. The outer and middle parts of the ear can be represented with a collection of coils, capacitors, and an ideal transformer to represent the leveraging effect of the <a href="Ossicles" title="Ossicles">ossicles</a>. This circuit terminates with a capacitor representing the <a href="Oval_window" title="Oval window">oval window</a>. From there, the two channels are represented with a sequence of inductors and resistors for fluid flow within each channel with the two channels joined with a sequence of series resonant RLC circuits. Voltages across capacitances represent <a href="Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">basilar membrane</a> displacements. Element values along the cochlea are tapered in a logarithmic fashion to represent lowering frequency responses with distance.

</p><p>The pattern of voltages along the <a href="Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">basilar membrane</a> can be viewed on an oscilloscope. Average values can be obtained with rectification and shown as patterns using a high speed commutator. The analog ear shows patterns that closely follow those observed by <a href="Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a> on his more direct model.

</p><p>The first relatively complete model was constructed in the early 1960s at the University of Arizona by two graduate students and their faculty mentor with support from the newly established Air Force <a href="Bionics" title="Bionics">Bionics</a> program. This work was first summarized in a report: "An Electronic Analog of the Ear", Technical Documentary Report No. <a href="Armored_Medical_Research_Laboratory" title="Armored Medical Research Laboratory">AMRL</a>-<a href="Technical_documentation" title="Technical documentation">TDR</a>-1963-60, June 1963, Biophysics Laboratory, 6570-th Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, Aerospace Medical Division, Air Force Systems Command, by E. Glaesser, W. F. Caldwell, and J. L. Stewart.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The report contains an extensive list of references. The work was also reported at <a href="Bionics" title="Bionics">Bionics</a> symposia.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="John_L._Stewart_and_Covox">John L. Stewart and Covox</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Covox" title="Covox">Covox</a></div>

<p>Unlike models based on a series of active filters or represented with digital equations, an analog ear can incorporate nonlinearities that represent nonlinear actions of the <a href="Basilar_membrane" title="Basilar membrane">basilar membrane</a>, perhaps caused by asymmetric motions of sensory cells resulting in asymmetric motions of the basilar membrane. Difference frequencies could be generated as are observed in the human. Some difference frequencies originating in the <a href="Cochlea" title="Cochlea">cochlea</a> can be observed in the <a href="Outer_ear" title="Outer ear">outer ear</a>.

</p><p>Neural signals responding to motions of the basilar membrane show responses in one direction as in rectification. At all but low frequencies, the neural measure averages over multiple cycles to give the equivalent of rectification followed by averaging (<a href="Low-pass_filter" title="Low-pass filter">low-pass filtering</a>). Over the entire cochlea, response shows as a pattern that varies more slowly that the applied frequency but that does follow the envelope of the applied signal. Each group of cells can give rise to a semi-periodic wave that can be analyzed by neurons in the brain. The total pattern that arises from a sound can thus be thought of as a two-dimensional pattern in time with one axis being the distance along the basilar membrane and the other being distance along some sequence of neurons. These patterns, varying at rates less than lower audio frequencies, have shapes that can be identified much like patterns in vision. The concept of the "neural analyzer" as an extension of cochlear patterns is discussed in <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3387093">U.S. patent 3,387,093</a></span>, "Speech Bandwidth Compression System", June 4, 1968 (filed in 1964).

</p><p>It was found that the analog ear with its asymmetric overlapping bands was more reliable in identifying speech sounds than is a conventional <a href="Frequency_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency spectrum">frequency spectrum</a>. The second <a href="Formant" title="Formant">formant</a> is the most significant single measure. Speech sounds of interest include <a href="Whispered" class="mw-redirect" title="Whispered">whispered</a> and clipped speech.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Applications were made to animals and insects with appropriate ear models.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study using the analog ear was "Simulating Mechanisms in Animal Echoranging", John L. Stewart and James M. Kasson.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many reports, articles, and patents followed the research as cited in the reports listed here. The last full report employed a relatively early version of a computer program written in time-shared <a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Stewart also self-published several books, doing business as Santa Rita Technology, and later as <a href="Covox" title="Covox">Covox</a>, including <i>The Analog Ear Story</i> and <i>The Analog Ear–brain System</i> in 1964, and <i>The Bionic Ear</i> in 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The research resulting from analog ear studies fueled the creation of special sounds for use in repelling birds and other pests. Sounds were synthesized to follow natural bird calls but were of a switching kind. The concept is similar to the use of a babble of human voices for jamming another person's communications. The "Av-Alarm" was the principal product. It was also adapted to the transonic and ultrasonic regions with a device called "Transonic".

</p><p>The research also led to development of an early speech word recognizer that operated with 8-bit computers as well as later ones based on 16-bit processors. The product line was developed by Covox, Inc. with product names of "Speech Thing" and "Voice Master".

</p><p>A number of U.S. (and foreign) patents on topics related to Stewart's analog ear were granted. In the order of filing dates starting in 1962, numbers are <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3294909">U.S. patent 3,294,909</a></span>, <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3325597">U.S. patent 3,325,597</a></span>, <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3387093">U.S. patent 3,387,093</a></span>, <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3432618">U.S. patent 3,432,618</a></span>, <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3378700">U.S. patent 3,378,700</a></span>, <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3483325">U.S. patent 3,483,325</a></span>, <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3459034">U.S. patent 3,459,034</a></span>, <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3543138">U.S. patent 3,543,138</a></span>, and <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3510588">U.S. patent 3,510,588</a></span>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analog_VLSI_cochlea_models">Analog VLSI cochlea models</h2></div>

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<p>Several groups have built analog VLSI hearing chips in recent decades.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Detailed discussions of the direct models by <a href="Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">von Békésy</a> will be found in his book, "Experiments in Hearing".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also see his article and others in S. S. Stevens, "Handbook of Experimental Psychology".<sup id="cite_ref-hbook_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hbook-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This handbook is singled out as a major source of information on speech and hearing, word recognition, and other topics as well as data on the human ear.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See "Speech Processing with A Cochlear-Neural Analog, John L. Stewart.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An article published in the journal <i>Behavioral Science</i> studied constraints to sensory discrimination imposed by two kinds of neural noise. Considerable information on speech patterns and recognition is reported by a number of different authors in the <i>Handbook of Experimental Psychology</i><sup id="cite_ref-hbook_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hbook-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referred to above.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See "A Theory and Physical Model for Cochlear Mechanics", John L. Stewart.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parameters of the analog ear and patterns obtained with the computer program are shown. Patterns and parameters given in this report are sufficient to reproduce analog ears.</span>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFVon_Békésy1960" class="citation book cs1">Von Békésy, Georg (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7A9wgEACAAJ"><i>Experiments in Hearing</i></a>. McGraw-Hill.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-hbook-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hbook_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hbook_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStevens1951" class="citation book cs1">Stevens, Stanley Smith (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JAENAAAAIAAJ"><i>Handbook of Experimental Psychology</i></a>. Wiley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780471823681</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKarplusSoroka1959" class="citation book cs1">Karplus, Walter J.; Soroka, Walter W. (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WHlQAAAAMAAJ"><i>Analog methods: computation and simulation</i></a>. McGraw-Hill.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBartonBrowning1919" class="citation journal cs1">Barton, E.H.; Browning, H.M. (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1527458">"XI. The resonance theory of audition subjected to experiments"</a>. <i>The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science</i>. <b>38</b> (223): <span class="nowrap">164–</span>173. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440708635936">10.1080/14786440708635936</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPetersonBogert1950" class="citation journal cs1">Peterson, L. C.; Bogert, B. P. (1950). "A Dynamical Theory of the Cochlea". <i>The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</i>. <b>22</b> (1): 84. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950ASAJ...22...84P">1950ASAJ...22...84P</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.1917149">10.1121/1.1917149</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBogert1950" class="citation journal cs1">Bogert, B. P. (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Bell-Laboratories-Record/50s/Bell-Laboratories-Record-1950-11.pdf">"A Network to Represent the Inner Ear"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="Bell_Laboratories_Record" title="Bell Laboratories Record">Bell Laboratories Record</a></i>. <b>28</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">481–</span>485. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0005-8564">0005-8564</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGlaesserCaldwellStewart1963" class="citation journal cs1">Glaesser, E.; Caldwell, W. F.; Stewart, J. L. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190926054719/https://apps.dtic.mil/docs/citations/AD0411320">"An electronic analog of the ear (AMRL-TDR-63-60)"</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fe428572004-001">10.1037/e428572004-001</a>. Archived from <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/docs/citations/AD0411320">the original</a></span> on September 26, 2019.</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (help)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1966" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart, JL (1966). "Speech processing with a cochlear-neural analog (AMRL-TR-66-229)". <i>Amrl-Tr. Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories (U.s.)</i>. Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories (U.S.): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>140. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5298146">5298146</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLucasStewart1966" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, Robert L; Stewart, John L (1966). <i>Aural systems simulation for birds and insects (AFAL-TR-66-12)</i>. Air Force Avionics Laboratory, Research and Technology Division, Air Force Systems Command. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39343194">39343194</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKassonStewart1969" class="citation report cs1">Kasson, James M.; Stewart, John L. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/AD0697411">Simulating Mechanisms in Animal Echoranging (AMRL-TR-1968-194)</a> (Report). <a href="Armored_Medical_Research_Laboratory" title="Armored Medical Research Laboratory">Armored Medical Research Laboratory</a> Technical report. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/831494678">831494678</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1972" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart, John L (1972). "A Theory and Physical Model for Cochlear Mechanics". <i>Acta Oto-Laryngologica</i>. <b>73</b> (Supp294).</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1979" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, John L (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ee1bMQAACAAJ"><i>The Bionic Ear</i></a>. Covox.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=vlsi+cochlea+analog">"VLSI cochlea analog – Google Scholar"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-04-05</span></span>.</cite></span>

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